Works Cited
Primary Sources
"Dwight D. Eisenhower: State of the Union Message (1960)." American History, ABC-CLIO, 2020, americanhistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/254227. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This transcript of former President Eisenhower’s 1960 State of the Union Message was used to demonstrate the context in which Telstar was developed in the United States and illustrate how the development of Telstar fit with the United State’s goal to extend communication around the globe and develop space technology.
Finney, John W. “Nation Sees Tests.” New York Times, 11 July 1962, p. 1, 16.
This news article from the New York Times the day after Telstar’s launch detailed the extraordinary success of Telstar, as regarded by government officials and the public alike. It also provided information about the contract between AT&T and the United States government.
Front Page - Marilyn Monroe's Death. 8 Aug. 1962. The Baltimore Sun, Tribune Publishing, www.baltimoresun.com/la-marilyn-monroes-death-20141216-htmlstory.html. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This image shows a newspaper article of Marilyn Monroe’s death that was used to demonstrate how Telstar affected the lives of everyday people and life occurrences by transmitting facets of and becoming a part of popular culture.
"John F. Kennedy: Urgent National Needs on Space (1961)." American History, ABC-CLIO, 2020, americanhistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/1753423. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This source was used to further develop the context in which Telstar to demonstrate how Telstar helped accomplish the goals of the United States in addition to the goals of AT&T.
Mounting Telstar Satellite to the Thor-Delta rocket 1962. NOKIA Bell Labs, Nokia, www.bell-labs.com/about/history-bell-labs/stories-changed-world/first-active-orbiting-communications-satellite/. Accessed 26 Nov. 2020.
This image depicts engineers attaching the Telstar Satellite to the Thor-Delta rocket to carry it into space. The success of the technology of Telstar inspired further development of space technology in the United States.
NASA. A Thor/Delta 316 launches with the Telstar 1 satellite from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Space Launch Complex 17B, July 10, 1962. NASA, www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/features/telstar.html. Accessed 26 Nov. 2020.
This image shows the launch of the Thor-Delta rocket that carried Telstar into its position in space. The application of space technology facilitated exploration of an entire new realm of possibilities in communication.
A postal cover issued on July 10, Telstar's launch date. 10 July 1962. National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian, airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/telstar-and-world-1962. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This postal stamp was used to demonstrate how the public took to the idea of Telstar and integrated the concept of this new technology into their lives, preparing the world for a greater adoption of communications technology.
"President Kennedy on Telstar." YouTube, uploaded by NASA Video, 17 May 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZqhktmzGxro&app=desktop. Accessed 11 Nov. 2020.
This video shows one of the first ever recordings sent across the Atlantic Ocean by Telstar. In the video, President Kennedy speaks to the American people and his viewers around the world about the success of this first step in truly global communications.
President Kennedy's 1963 State of the Union Speech. History, Art & Archives, United States House of Representatives, history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/President-John-F--Kennedy-s-first-State-of-the-Union-Address/. Accessed 26 Nov. 2020.
This image shows former President Kennedy giving his State of the Union address in 1963, the year after the launch of Telstar. President Kennedy greatly used Telstar to communicate with other countries and help further his goals for spreading peace and prosperity around the globe.
Telstar 1. Encyclopædia Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/ATandT-Corporation#/media/1/586427/2900. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This image was used to provide a visual of the Telstar satellite and show it’s design.
“Telstar Facts and Figures.” New York Times, 11 July 1962, p. 16.
This page of the New York Times print newspaper the day after Telstar’s launch provided basic details about the satellite, including that it was sponsored by AT&T and its purpose was to test broadband communications in space and study the effects of radiation and micrometeorites on the satellite.
United States Air Force. A Navstar GPS satellite undergoing pre-launch testing. Scientific American, Springer Nature America, www.scientificamerican.com/article/gps-and-the-world-s-first-space-war/. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This image shows a GPS satellite before it is launched into space to join the GPS satellite constellation that provides GPS coverage across the globe. The design of satellites has greatly changed since Telstar and newer satellites have much expanded capabilities thanks to research from previous satellite models, beginning with the Telstar communications satellite.
---. Two Soldiers test early models of GPS manpack receivers in 1978. 1978. United States Air Force, www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/703894/evolution-of-gps-from-desert-storm-to-todays-users/#:~:text=Since%20the%20Gulf%20War%2C%20the,several%20peacekeeping%20and%20military%20operations.&text=Desert%20Storm%20provided%20the%20stage,the%20enemy%20with%20unprecedented%20accuracy. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
Satellite communications, including GPS, are greatly used in warfare by the United States and many other countries. Telstar’s impact goes beyond purely scientific research purposes or general public applications, it is also used in other facets of life such as politics and warfare.
"Video-taped Remarks to be Sent via Telstar Satellite to Japan, 20 November 1963." John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, National Archives, 20 Nov. 1963, www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/JFKWHA/1963/JFKWHA-241-003/JFKWHA-241-003. Accessed 11 Nov. 2020.
This recording was sent by President Kennedy and the United States government to Japan to state the countries’ intentions to work together for peace and prosperity for both countries. This recording was used to develop an argument about the use of Telstar to further the goals of the United States on a global scale and how Telstar was the first step in a large communications journey.
Witkin, Richard. “Live Images Transmitted Across Ocean First Time.” New York Times, 11 July 1962, p. 1, 16.
This news coverage in the New York Times print newspaper from the day after Telstar’s launch provided information of the contents of the first satellite broadcast by Telstar and gives a picture of the reaction that citizens had to the satellite; Witkin described Telstar as revolutionary.
Secondary Sources
“AT&T Archives: Telstar!” YouTube, uploaded by AT&T Tech Channel, 14 September 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKH-GijnAGk&t=890s.
This film was produced in 1962 with footage from the time of Telstar and all of the people who worked on it. I used this source to get a sense of the atmosphere at the time, as well as get basic information about the details of the satellite, the launch, and the celebration by the people who made Telstar happen.
“AT&T Corporation.” Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History, edited by Thomas Riggs, 2n ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2015, p. 96-101. Gale In Context: U.S. History, Accessed 1 Feb. 2021.
From this source I learned about the history of AT&T, which I used to contextualize Telstar and give background on the private company that sponsored the satellite.
Bell Labs. Image of the Telstar 1 Satellite. NASA, www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/features/telstar.html. Accessed 26 Nov. 2020.
This image depicts the Telstar 1 satellite. It was spherical in design and contained instruments to both transmit signals across the Atlantic Ocean and to collect data that scientists used to refine future satellite designs.
Collins, Martin. "Telstar and the World of 1962." National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian, 23 July 2012, airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/telstar-and-world-1962. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This source provided information about how Telstar affected popular culture at the time of its launch, including showing television coverage on the death of Marilyn Monroe, being a design on a postal stamp, and inspiring the song “Telstar” by The Tornadoes.
Collins, Martin. "Telstar and the World of 1962." National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian, 23 July 2012, airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/telstar-and-world-1962. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This source provided information about how Telstar affected popular culture at the time of its launch, including showing television coverage on the death of Marilyn Monroe, being a design on a postal stamp, and inspiring the song “Telstar” by The Tornadoes.
Cowen, Tyler. “2020’s Silver Lining: Science.” Lincoln Journal Star, 30 Dec. 2020, p. A5
This editorial in the Lincoln Journal Star talked about the advancements in science that happened in 2020. This included a company that has a plan to extend satellite communications to all parts of the world, which demonstrates that satellite communications continue to be important today, even more so than they were at the time of Telstar’s launch.
“50 Years Ago, Communications Became Global.” Weekend Edition Saturday, 14 July 2012. Gale In Context: High School, Accessed 27 Jan. 2021.
This was an interview that Scott Simon conducted with an engineer on Telstar 1, reflecting on the achievements of the satellite 50 years after the fact. I used two quotes from the interview in my project.
“50 Years Ago, Telstar Debuted Live Video From Space.” All Things Considered, 23 July 2012. Gale In Context: High School, Accessed 27 Jan. 2021.
I took a quote from this radio broadcast that I thought nicely stated a main point I wanted to make that Telstar has the first step on a journey that has revolutionized communication.
Finkbiener, Ann. “Orbital Aggression.” Scientific American, Nov. 2020, pp. 50-57.
This article provided information and several quotes about the number and purpose of satellites in orbit today. This included the number of satellites that are used for telecommunications, and the number that are owned by the United States.
“From the Archives: Cronkite, Live Via Satellite.” All Things Considered. NPR, 18 July 2009.
This was a rebroadcast of a broadcast from 2002 in which famous news anchor Walter Cronkite recalled his very first broadcast using Telstar. I used his perspective in my project to show the impact that Telstar had on the communication industry at the time of its launch, and how people were still recalling its legacy years later.
"Global Positioning System." American History, ABC-CLIO, 2020, americanhistory.abc-clio.com/Search/Display/262091. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This source provided information about the Global Positioning System (GPS), including information about the number and positioning of the 24 or more GPS satellites and their use in warfare. It detailed information about GPS usage in the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, as well as other military operations.
GPS.gov. Expandable 24-Slot satellite constellation. GPS.gov, NOAA, 6 Nov. 2020, www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space/. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This image demonstrates how communications satellites have developed since the launch of Telstar and a coordinated array of satellites make up the GPS “satellite constellation” that provide many useful services to people around the globe.
Karafantis, Layne. “Telstar, the Cold War, and the Origins of Global Communications.” Vulcan 4.1, 2016, p. 112-134. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134603-00401005 Web.
This source provided me quotes and information about the political and technological situation preceding the creation and launch of Telstar, which I used on my context page. I also used the source’s references page to find useful primary sources.
Kennedy, F. John. “Statement by the President on the Telstar Communications Satellite.” Online by Peters, Gerhard and John T. Wolley. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/236242
This source provided two quotes from former President John. F. Kennedy regarding the success of Telstar, and made the point that the United States government was very happy with Telstar’s achievements and reception by the public.
Lewis, Peter H. “The Night the Satellite Flew.” New York Times, 5 July 1987, p. 106.
This article from the New York Times gave a still recent but further removed account of the legacy of Telstar on communications. I used it to show the impact that Telstar had on the future of communications.
"Mission Monday: Five fast facts about Telstar, the world's first active communications satellite." Space Center Houston, 6 July 2020, spacecenter.org/mission-monday-five-fast-facts-about-telstar-the-worlds-first-active-communications-satellite/. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This source provided general information about the Telstar satellite, including how it was the first privately sponsored space faring mission and that it was hoped to help promote peace and communications in the midst of the terrible Cold War.
Model, Communications Satellite, Comstar. National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian, airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/model-communications-satellite-comstar/nasm_A19750769000. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This image shows a model of the Comstar Communications Satellite and was used to further an argument on the communications revolution that was sparked by Telstar.
"Model, Communications Satellite, Comstar." National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian, airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/model-communications-satellite-comstar/nasm_A19750769000. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This source provided information on the Comstar satellites which followed the launch of the Telstar satellites and was used to make the argument that Telstar sparked a new era of satellite communications.
“Telstar.” New York Times, 26 July 1987. Gale In Context: High School, Accessed 28 Jan. 2021.
This snippet from the New York Times was a write-in from the former Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission from 1961-1963. I used a quote from her writing in which she discussed talking to the President about the need for the United States to pursue satellite technology because of the importance it would have in the future.
---. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite communications between the ground and space. NASA, www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/communications/outreach/funfacts/txt_relay_satellite.html. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This image was used to show how satellite communications have developed in the years following Telstar and are crucial to our science and our daily lives today. Telstar began this wave of new satellite technology that has become a major part of our research and our lives.
NASA Content Administrator, editor. "July 20, 1962: The Day Information Went Global." NASA, 30 Jan. 2018, www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/features/telstar.html. Accessed 3 Nov. 2020.
This source provided specific details about the launch of Telstar including where and when the launch took place and where the first communication was related to and from in the United States and France. It also provided some information about the “firsts” that Telstar can claim.
Odenwald, Sten F. History of Space Exploration in 100 Objects. New York, EXPERIMENT, 2019.
This book provided information on the Soviet Union’s Sputnik satellite which prompted United States action in the space and technology fields with the creation of NASA and the Advanced Research Projects Agency (Defense Advanced Research project agency) in 1958, and the use of additional funds for education and scientific research.
Original Death Star. Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_Star. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
This image of the Star Wars death star was used to show how everyday people accepted Telstar into their culture and for this reason were prepared to integrate further satellite communications into their lives which allowed satellite communications to take off very rapidly.
Oxlade, Chris. Telecommunications. Austin, Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1997.
This book provided information on how satellites fit into a ground-based communications network, like how AT&T used the Telstar and later Comstar Satellites to enhance their ground based networks as they were the biggest telecommunications provider in the country at the time of Telstar’s launch.
Pierce, John R., and A. Michael Noll. Signals: The Science of Telecommunications. New York, Scientific American Library, 1990.
This book provided information about AT&T and the Bell System’s work regarding the Telstar satellite and their goals for its use. It also provided some information about the Communications Satellite Act. The book also details how the success of Telstar demonstrated that space is really good for telecommunication.
Pierce, John R., and Michael A. Noll. Calls per person vs. Year. 1990.
This image was used to show how after Telstar’s launch, the number of overseas calls placed from the United States rose more rapidly than local or long-distance calls, demonstrating Telstar’s affect on how people communicate and how the world was beginning to more to a more globally connected model.
“Satellites.” St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Encyclopedia.com. 13 January 2021, https://www.encyclopedia.com
This source provided a quote from Dr. Lori C. Walters stated that while the technological achievements of future satellites further surpassed those of Telstar, they were not as publicly popular as Telstar.
“U.S. Census Bureau Daily Feature for July 11: Telstar.” PR Newswire, 11 July 2017. Gale In Context: High School. Accessed 28 Jan. 2021.
This source provided information about the telecommunications industry in 2016, which I used to demonstrate the growth of the satellite communications industry since Telstar.
“Voices for the Space Industry.” Mechanical Engineering-CIME, vol. 136, no. 2, Feb. 2014, p. 19. Gale in Context: High School. Accessed 27 Jan. 2021.
This source provided a quote from the former president of the Satellite Industry Association, Patricia A. Cooper, in 2014, discussing the profits of the Satellite Industry in 2013. She noted that satellite TV was the main source of industry growth.